{"id":34182,"date":"2022-07-28T18:42:43","date_gmt":"2022-07-28T16:42:43","guid":{"rendered":"https:\/\/mag.bynez.com\/?p=34182"},"modified":"2022-07-28T18:42:48","modified_gmt":"2022-07-28T16:42:48","slug":"perfumery-disoriented-part-2-orientalism-colonial-aesthetics","status":"publish","type":"post","link":"https:\/\/mag.bynez.com\/en\/reports\/perfumery-disoriented\/perfumery-disoriented-part-2-orientalism-colonial-aesthetics\/","title":{"rendered":"Perfumery disoriented, part 2: Orientalism &amp; colonial aesthetics"},"content":{"rendered":"    <div id=\"chapo-block_62df9cb83fb39\" class=\"chapo\">\r\n        <blockquote class=\"chapo-blockquote\">\r\n            <span class=\"chapo-text\">Should we say \u201cambery\u201d or \u201coriental\u201d? <a href=\"https:\/\/mag.bynez.com\/en\/reports\/perfumery-disoriented\/perfumery-disoriented-part-1-ambery-or-oriental-a-family-story\/\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\">In the first part of this series<\/a>, we questioned the perfume theorists and their use of the term \u201camber\u201d to deal with the purely olfactory dimension of perfume. However, this cannot be disconnected from a metaphorical dimension which has become more complex since the 19th century due to the success of Orientalism and the aestheticization of the colonial imagination.<\/span>\r\n        <\/blockquote>\r\n        <style type=\"text\/css\">\r\n            #chapo-block_62df9cb83fb39 {\r\n                background: ;\r\n                color: ;\r\n            }\r\n        <\/style>\r\n    <\/div>\r\n    \n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">To formulate the Orient: Perfumery and Orientalism<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>In his book <em>Orientalism<\/em>, Edward Said discusses the narrative on the \u201cOrient\u201d produced by Western writers and artists in past centuries. But what is the Orient? Since there is no geopolitical entity bearing that name, Said\u2019s work describes it as a protean space seen from the viewpoint of the West, made up of the Middle East, part of Africa, Southeast Asia and the Far East. These places are considered at a certain mythical moment in their development, when they were neither influenced by Western colonialism nor reformed by the Muslim clergy. We can thus understand the position of Serge Lutens, who sought to get his perfumery out of the mythological vagueness and preferred to speak of \u201cArab\u201d rather than \u201cOriental\u201d perfumery.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Orientalism is a thought based on the ontological distinction between East and West. Many writers, poets, novelists and philosophers have used this fundamental distinction as the starting point for elaborate theories, epics, novels, social descriptions and political accounts concerning the Orient, its people and customs, its \u201cspirit\u201d and its destiny. <span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_1');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_1');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_1\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[1]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_1\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Edward Said, <em>Orientalism, op. cit<\/em>., p. 2-3.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_1').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_1', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201cOrientalists\u201d have never considered it their duty to give voice to the foreigners they observed: They focused on reporting on their situation from their Western point of view and tried to \u201cdomesticate\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_2');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_2');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_2\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[2]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_2\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><em>Ibid<\/em>., p. 78.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_2').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_2', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> exoticism. For Edward Said, Napoleon&#8217;s expedition to Egypt in 1798 marked the establishment of the new Orientalist movement, as the future emperor proclaimed his desire to restore the region from \u201cits present barbarism to its former classical greatness\u201d and \u201cto formulate the Orient, to give it shape, identity, definition with full recognition of its place in memory, its importance to imperial strategy, and its \u2018natural\u2019 role as an appendage to Europe.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_3');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_3');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_3\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[3]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_3\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><em>Ibid<\/em>., p. 86.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_3').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_3', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> Orientalism emerges here from a severe power struggle.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201cTo formulate the Orient\u201d is a seductive statement that could also sum up part of the career of perfumer Jacques Guerlain (1874-1963). In 1925,<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_4');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_4');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_4\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[4]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_4\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Michael Edwards, <em>Parfums de l\u00e9gende<\/em>, translated by Guy Robert, Levallois-Perret, HM \u00e9ditions, 1998, p. 55.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_4').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_4', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> he created <em>Shalimar<\/em>, a perfume that marked a turning point in history and launched a new fashion in perfumery, particularly fond of the Orient. Jacques Guerlain had probably never visited Asia, but his passion for the Orient as an idea led him to draw inspiration from the history of the Taj Mahal and the gardens of the Emperor Shah Jahan. In <em>Shalimar<\/em>, vanillin is associated with benzoin, coumarin and labdanum, the key ingredients of \u201cambery\u201d compositions. However, his Oriental taste is not always reflected in creations belonging to this olfactory family. The perfume <em>Kadine<\/em>, released in 1911 and reissued in 2021 by Guerlain, is a lesson in this respect: Its name of Turkish origin means \u201csultan\u2019s wife,\u201d but its majestic composition is indeed floral, with aniseed and bergamot making a bed for heliotrope, jasmine, iris and violet. The terms \u201camber\u201d and \u201cOriental\u201d are therefore not substitutable for each other in the history of perfumes.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">The two sides of the colonial coin<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>The perfumer\u2019s palette expanded drastically in the 19th century, thanks to synthesis but also to the colonial conquests of the areas where natural raw materials were cultivated or harvested. Unsurprisingly, most of these came from the same lands that gave birth to Orientalist imagery. The cartography of natural raw materials proposed in <em>The Big Book of Perfume<\/em><span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_5');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_5');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_5\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[5]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_5\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Jeanne Dor\u00e9 (ed.), <em>The Big Book of Perfume<\/em>, Paris, Nez \u00e9ditions, 2020, p. 54-55.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_5').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_5', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> is emblematic in this respect: It reveals the interest in products collected along the colonial routes that spread out from Europe and draws the map of the \u201cOrient\u201d by evoking ingredients like incense bought in Oman, cedar from North Africa, sandalwood from India, oud from Southeast Asia or ginger from China.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Most of these natural raw materials are of wild origin: They are harvested by local populations that the market refuses to take into consideration, even when it is the source of technical innovations. The process of fertilizing vanilla, for example, was discovered around 1841 by Edmond Albius, who was reduced to the rank of slave on Bourbon Island (now R\u00e9union Island).<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_6');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_6');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_6\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[6]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_6\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">H\u00e9l\u00e8ne Blais &amp; Rahul Markovits, \u201cLe commerce des plantes, XVIe-XXe si\u00e8cle\u201d, Revue d\u2019histoire moderne &amp; contemporaine, 2019\/3, n\u00b0 66-3, online&nbsp;:&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_6');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_6').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_6', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> The current decay of Somalia, whose frankincense is sold at a premium price, or of Madagascar, whose vanilla has been used all over the world since the end of the 19th century, still bears witness to the violence of the colonial extraction of raw materials, while the wealth generated by the production never went back to the local workers \u2013 a situation that continues to give rise to many tensions.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_7');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_7');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_7\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[7]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_7\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Nancy Kacungira, \u201cFighting the vanilla thieves of Madagascar\u201d, <em>BBC.com<\/em>, August 16, 2018, online: <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/resources\/idt-sh\/madagascar_vanillla<\/span> (accessed on 03\/01\/2022).<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_7').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_7', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> In the colonized lands, the European quest for ores and raw materials also had tragic ecological consequences, as is the case in South India, in the Western Ghats, where the British forestry policy led not only to the exploitation of the population but to the deforestation of a significant part of the territory.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_8');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_8');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_8\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[8]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_8\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Jacques Pouchepadass, \u201cColonisation et changement \u00e9cologique en Inde du Sud. La politique foresti\u00e8re britannique et ses cons\u00e9quences sociales dans les Gh\u00e2ts occidentaux (XIXe-XXe si\u00e8cles)\u201d,&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_8');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_8').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_8', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script>\n\n\n\n<p>\u201cThe colonial nightmare is, however, masked in old Europe by the Oriental dream and the creative enthusiasm it arouses. The hard work that goes on far away generates the most brilliant leisure and art in the West. For the re-release of <em>Kadine<\/em>, Guerlain recalled in its communication the Orientalist intention of Jacques Guerlain, and his links with the Parisian fashion of the time. As he was working on the perfume, in 1910, the Op\u00e9ra de Paris was indeed performing <em>Sh\u00e9h\u00e9razade<\/em> for the first time, with Michel Fokine\u2019s choreography for Diaghilev\u2019s Ballets Russes on the music written by Rimsky-Korsakov. At this time, Orientalism was one of the last relics of a Romanticism that did not seem to want to end, with its clich\u00e9s, its fantasies, its detachment from the material history of the world and its vagueness in which India, Turkey and China were indistinctly mixed. As fashion allows it to come back in the late 20th century, it continued to inspire Yves Saint Laurent in 1977: \u201cEven today, everything in Europe that is modern in music, in color, in art, has been based on Orientalism,\u201d explains the creator of <em>Opium<\/em> to Andr\u00e9 L\u00e9on Talley,<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_9');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_9');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_9\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[9]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_9\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Andr\u00e9 L\u00e9on Talley, \u201cYSL on <em>Opium<\/em>\u201d, <em>Women\u2019s Wear Daily<\/em>, New York, USA, September 18, 1978.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_9').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_9', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> announcing a new revival of the theme by the perfume industry.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"aligncenter size-full\"><img fetchpriority=\"high\" decoding=\"async\" width=\"400\" height=\"500\" src=\"https:\/\/mag.bynez.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/CH-2.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-34188\" srcset=\"https:\/\/mag.bynez.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/CH-2.jpg 400w, https:\/\/mag.bynez.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/CH-2-240x300.jpg 240w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\" \/><figcaption>Jean-L\u00e9on G\u00e9r\u00f4me,&nbsp;<em>Piscine dans un harem<\/em>, 1876, State Hermitage Museum, St. Petersburg, Russia.<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">The fixation of the Orient in discourses and forms<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>In his work, Edward Said pinpoints the ideological problems posed by Orientalism: Essentially ambiguous, it is both a \u201cknowledge\u201d (about hieroglyphs or perfumery plants, for example) and an \u201cimagination,\u201d discursively constructed for centuries by \u201cthe Occident\u201d about \u201cthe Orient.\u201d This mix produces a certain number of very profitable false evidences and a position of power: Unequal relations are justified and framed by the Orientalist discourse.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>By defining the <em>Other<\/em> that the Orient represents, the Occident has also been able to define itself. The Orient, a designated cultural rival, reflects an image of the old continent, a personality and an experience that are in contrast, even opposed, to how it saw itself. In this respect, the Orient is a true \u201cintegral part\u201d of European civilization. While it has crossed the centuries, it remains a particularly stable imagination and is presented as \u201cfixed\u201d by the West: The narrative that surrounds it is essentially made up of constant reworkings of previous discourses.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_10');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_10');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_10\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[10]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_10\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">Regarding this \u201creiterative transhistoricity\u201d characteristic of ideology, one can read Patrick Tort, <em>Qu\u2019est-ce que le mat\u00e9rialisme&nbsp;?<\/em>, Paris, Belin, 2016, p. 38.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_10').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_10', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> The people it designates are thus also locked into a \u201cfixism\u201d that uniformly attributes to them a name (the \u201cOrientals\u201d) and characteristics that sometimes present themselves in the form of \u201cracist clich\u00e9s\u201d used to define a lesser breed of human beings.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_11');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_11');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_11\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[11]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_11\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">&nbsp;Edward Said, <em>Orientalism, op. cit<\/em>., p. 341.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_11').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_11', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> This explains and justifies the contemporary mistrust of the notion, particularly among Anglo-Saxons who kept on designating entire populations with the word \u201cOriental.\u201d As an intellectual, aesthetic and political construction, the Orient does not exist in and for itself, but for the use of the Occident, and it is most often presented as an eternal land of subalterns.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Aesthetically, Orientalism does not seek to camouflage \u201cfixism,\u201d but rather plays with the motifs it repeats, with fables whose renewed evocation reinforces the feeling of authenticity. The reinterpretation of the same imagery is thus particularly noticeable in the paintings of Jean-L\u00e9on G\u00e9r\u00f4me (1824-1904), such as <em>Pool in the Harem<\/em> in 1876, which presents an idealized intimacy,<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_12');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_12');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_12\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[12]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_12\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">&nbsp;For further insights on this subject, see: Linda Nochlin \u201cThe Imaginary Orient\u201d in <em>The Politics of Vision<\/em>, New York, Routledge, 1989.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_12').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_12', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> and already contains many of the visual codes that we see extended during the 20th century.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_13');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_13');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_13\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[13]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_13\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">An analysis of this aesthetic is presented by Ma Lin in \u201cThe Representation of the Orient in Western Women Perfume Advertisements: A Semiotic Analysis\u201d, Intercultural Communication Studies, XVII,&nbsp;&#x2026; <span class=\"footnote_tooltip_continue\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_13');\">Continue reading<\/span><\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_13').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_13', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> It is still this reworked imagery that is proposed by Guerlain in its recent communication campaigns around <em>Shalimar<\/em>. Repetition does not harm the reception of Orientalist aesthetics, on the contrary: It creates the Orient as a commonplace that is welcoming and reassuring in its constancy, offering a reverie that no bad surprise can disturb. The phenomenon can be observed even in scents, when aficionados of \u201cOriental fragrances\u201d take pleasure in rediscovering with each perfume how one of the most stable forms of perfumery is worked, with its warm heart of vanilla and benzoin, whose spicy coating does not even change much over time.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"aligncenter size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"1024\" height=\"485\" src=\"https:\/\/mag.bynez.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/guerlain-moreau-gerome-1024x485-1.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-34190\" srcset=\"https:\/\/mag.bynez.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/guerlain-moreau-gerome-1024x485-1.jpg 1024w, https:\/\/mag.bynez.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/guerlain-moreau-gerome-1024x485-1-300x142.jpg 300w, https:\/\/mag.bynez.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/guerlain-moreau-gerome-1024x485-1-768x364.jpg 768w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px\" \/><figcaption>Left : Jean-L\u00e9on G\u00e9r\u00f4me,&nbsp;<em>Le Bain maure<\/em>, 1870, Museum of fine arts, Boston, USA (detail) ; centre : advertisement for&nbsp;Guerlain&#8217;s <em>Shalimar<\/em>, 2013 ; Right : Gustave Moreau,&nbsp;<em>Salom\u00e9 dansant devant H\u00e9rode<\/em>, 1876, Hammer Museum,&nbsp;Los Angeles, USA (detail)<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">The Orient, between aesthetics and politics<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>What should be done with Orientalism in light of these contradictions? Should it still be given some praise or should it be denounced? Edward Said urged his readers not to misunderstand his subject: \u201cNowhere,\u201d he wrote, \u201cdo I argue that Orientalism is evil, or sloppy, or uniformly the same in the work of each and every Orientalist. But I do say that the <em>guild<\/em> of Orientalists has a specific history of complicity with imperial power, which it would be Panglossian to call irrelevant.\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_14');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_14');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_14\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[14]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_14\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">&nbsp;Edward Said, <em>Orientalism, op. cit<\/em>., p. 342.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_14').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_14', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> In many cases, artists and perfumers reflect the society of their time, so it is up to us to be aware of their achievements, but also of the function they may have had in the formation of Orientalist knowledge, and the imperialist oppression that went with it.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>At the same time, our judgment on the old Orientalism that perfumery still represents deserves to be weighted, particularly by taking into account its political and social influence, which is now insignificant compared to that of another Orientalism denounced by Said. The author makes a distinction between the \u201cpre-Romantic, pre-technical Orientalist imagination of late-nineteenth-century Europe,\u201d which conveys the \u201cfree-floating Orient\u201d that is still the one used in perfumery, and \u201cacademic Orientalism,\u201d \u201cmodern Orientalism,\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_15');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_15');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_15\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[15]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_15\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><em>Ibid<\/em>.<em>, <\/em>p. 119.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_15').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_15', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> whose political effects have been more directly devastating, both in the 20th century and today. The real targets of Said\u2019s attacks are thus \u201cOrientalists who betrayed their calling as scholars,\u201d<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_16');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_16');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_16\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[16]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_16\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\"><em>Ibid<\/em>., p. XV.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_16').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_16', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> such as Bernard Lewis and Fouad Ajami, whose work influenced U.S. foreign policy in the early 21st century, including George W. Bush\u2019s military interventions in the Middle East, contributing to a revival of postcolonial dynamics.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Orientalism therefore needs to be re-evaluated and demystified: Relations of power and domination cannot be addressed solely by a transformation of vocabulary. The suppression of the term \u201cOriental\u201d is not able to prevent the reproduction of the tragic dynamics that we have described, both by brands and by perfumers who have, sometimes in spite of themselves, preserved from this forgotten past a certain culture of inequality and \u201crebranded\u201d authoritarian structures. In contrast to all the dynamics of oblivion, it is undoubtedly preferable to preserve the olfactory culture and the knowledge of its history, which includes all its asperities, the contradictions that have shaped the world in which we live. We must also be aware that if \u201cambery\u201d or \u201cOriental\u201d perfumery is the aesthetic summit that we know, it is not due to a few conquering Western elites, but thanks to a myriad of actors that the history of perfume often struggles to take into account.<\/p>\n\n\n<div class=\"wp-block-image\">\n<figure class=\"aligncenter size-full\"><img decoding=\"async\" width=\"400\" height=\"650\" src=\"https:\/\/mag.bynez.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/VI.jpg\" alt=\"\" class=\"wp-image-34192\" srcset=\"https:\/\/mag.bynez.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/VI.jpg 400w, https:\/\/mag.bynez.com\/wp-content\/uploads\/2022\/07\/VI-185x300.jpg 185w\" sizes=\"(max-width: 400px) 100vw, 400px\" \/><figcaption>Gustave Moreau,&nbsp;<em>Salom\u00e9 dansant devant H\u00e9rode<\/em>, 1876,&nbsp;Hammer Museum, Los Angeles, USA<\/figcaption><\/figure>\n<\/div>\n\n\n<h3 class=\"wp-block-heading\">Reorienting perfumery?<\/h3>\n\n\n\n<p>In the contemporary communication of perfumery, the discourse on Orientalism already seems to have evolved. The re-release of <em>Kadine<\/em> is exemplary in this respect: Guerlain does not insist on the Turkish or Indian traditions in its discourse, but on the cultural ferment of the \u201cBelle \u00c9poque\u201d that Jacques Guerlain knew, now irretrievably lost. At the time, people were dreaming of the Orient in theaters and department stores, and fables about this strange and desirable world were particularly lively. In contemporary advertising, nostalgia for this Orientalist moment seems to have overtaken the dream of the Orient itself, while more and more brands seem to be banking on the fact that Oriental perfumery perhaps speaks to us more of another time than another space. They seem to play on the memory of the glory days of European high society that entertained itself with fantasies that our contemporaneity has since somewhat emptied.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Perfumers also take a central place in the communication. Their names were barely known a few years ago, but now they have a greater say than ever. At the same time, many contributors to the perfume industry remain anonymous, even though perfume is becoming more and more a co-creation. Evaluators, sourcers, inventors of synthetic raw materials, but also horticulturists, farmers, pickers, cultivators from six continents: All these are not less crucial or more dispensable links, even if the myth of the Orient and the capitalist structure of our society attribute a different prestige to them.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>While many composition houses now offer programs to support farmers to improve their situation, the global market is still shaped by colonialism, and the palliatives that are deployed (such as the construction of schools or promises of a fair price for their harvest) are insufficient to bring about egalitarian trade between the West and former colonies. Edward Said was fighting to avoid waging war on the subalterns who have been called \u201cOrientals,\u201d and the critique of Orientalism cannot be carried out without this idea, without making a fair place for the most fragile participants in the perfume industry. Their past, their aesthetic contribution is no less rich and interesting: Many farmers\u2019 lives and olfactory productions from villages of gatherers are worth more than Oriental legends that have been dulled by marketing.&nbsp;<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Contemporary debates remind us that the curious stability of olfactory aesthetics makes perfumery a privileged witness to the passage of time. This dimension, far from being a hindrance to our aesthetic enjoyment, gives us the opportunity to make perfume not only a source of pleasure, but also a witness to history, a moment of awareness of the world\u2019s progress. Oscillating between scents and metaphors, olfactory culture gives us the opportunity to smell as well as to dream and think, and should be able to teach us about aesthetic joys as well as historical events.<span class=\"footnote_referrer\"><a role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" onclick=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_17');\" onkeypress=\"footnote_moveToReference_34182_1('footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_17');\" ><sup id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_17\" class=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text\">[17]<\/sup><\/a><span id=\"footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_17\" class=\"footnote_tooltip\">For further reading on the subject, see: Karl Schl\u00f6gel, <em>The Scent of Empires: Chanel N\u00b0 5 and Red Moscow<\/em>, Cambridge, Polity Press, 2021.<\/span><\/span><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> jQuery('#footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_17').tooltip({ tip: '#footnote_plugin_tooltip_text_34182_1_17', tipClass: 'footnote_tooltip', effect: 'fade', predelay: 0, fadeInSpeed: 200, delay: 400, fadeOutSpeed: 200, position: 'top center', relative: true, offset: [-7, 0], });<\/script> As such, <em>Shalimar<\/em> is not only \u201cambery,\u201d it is also an \u201cOrientalist\u201d perfume, if not an \u201coriental,\u201d with all the contradictions that this implies, all the rich narrative of the relations between Europe and the rest of the world that it underlies.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>As I examine once again the original French version of this article in order to translate it into English, the version you are now reading, I am still struck by how different is the meaning of the term \u201cOriental\u201d in English and in French, but how advertising, marketing companies and commentators tried to use it in a similar way in both languages in the 20th-century perfume world. This article is just the sketch of research that needs to be extended, but I wouldn\u2019t be astonished if we were to find out that another part of the contemporary controversies come from a certain laziness in translating terms from French into English (and from an overall laziness that makes \u201cOriental\u201d sound like an efficient description for smells in general). We have to keep in mind that the history of the term \u201cOriental\u201d in French and in English is quite different. That\u2019s probably another useful lesson: The Occident also isn\u2019t as unified as we\u2019d want it to be; our language and the way we perceive it bear the mark of different histories.<\/p>\n\n\n\n<p>Nevertheless, the real challenge for the perfumery of today is perhaps not to make a \u201cbetter\u201d Orientalism (even if that were possible) or to propose the old Orientalist aesthetic under a different name (which is sometimes already the case), but to make a contemporary perfumery inhabited by a real diversity, leaving behind the \u201cfixisms\u201d of the past.<\/p>\n<div class=\"speaker-mute footnotes_reference_container\"> <div class=\"footnote_container_prepare\"><p><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_label pointer\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_34182_1();\">Notes<\/span><span role=\"button\" tabindex=\"0\" class=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button\" style=\"display: none;\" onclick=\"footnote_expand_collapse_reference_container_34182_1();\">[<a id=\"footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_34182_1\">+<\/a>]<\/span><\/p><\/div> <div id=\"footnote_references_container_34182_1\" style=\"\"><table class=\"footnotes_table footnote-reference-container\"><caption class=\"accessibility\">Notes<\/caption> <tbody> \r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_1');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_1\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>1<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Edward Said, <em>Orientalism, op. cit<\/em>., p. 2-3.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_2');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_2\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>2<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Ibid<\/em>., p. 78.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_3');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_3\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>3<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Ibid<\/em>., p. 86.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_4');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_4\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>4<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Michael Edwards, <em>Parfums de l\u00e9gende<\/em>, translated by Guy Robert, Levallois-Perret, HM \u00e9ditions, 1998, p. 55.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_5');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_5\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>5<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Jeanne Dor\u00e9 (ed.), <em>The Big Book of Perfume<\/em>, Paris, Nez \u00e9ditions, 2020, p. 54-55.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_6');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_6\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>6<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">H\u00e9l\u00e8ne Blais &amp; Rahul Markovits, \u201cLe commerce des plantes, XVIe-XXe si\u00e8cle\u201d, <em>Revue d\u2019histoire moderne &amp; contemporaine<\/em>, 2019\/3, n\u00b0 66-3, online&nbsp;: <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.cairn.info\/revue-d-histoire-moderne-et-contemporaine-2019-3-page-7.htm?contenu=article<\/span> (accessed on 03\/01\/2022).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_7');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_7\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>7<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Nancy Kacungira, \u201cFighting the vanilla thieves of Madagascar\u201d, <em>BBC.com<\/em>, August 16, 2018, online: <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.bbc.co.uk\/news\/resources\/idt-sh\/madagascar_vanillla<\/span> (accessed on 03\/01\/2022).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_8');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_8\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>8<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Jacques Pouchepadass, \u201cColonisation et changement \u00e9cologique en Inde du Sud. La politique foresti\u00e8re britannique et ses cons\u00e9quences sociales dans les Gh\u00e2ts occidentaux (XIXe-XXe si\u00e8cles)\u201d, <em>Revue fran\u00e7aise d&#8217;histoire d&#8217;outre-mer<\/em>, Vol. 80, n\u00b0 299, 1993, p. 165-193. Online: <span class=\"footnote_url_wrap\">https:\/\/www.persee.fr\/doc\/outre_0300-9513_1993_num_80_299_3087<\/span> (accessed on 03\/01\/2022).<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_9');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_9\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>9<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Andr\u00e9 L\u00e9on Talley, \u201cYSL on <em>Opium<\/em>\u201d, <em>Women\u2019s Wear Daily<\/em>, New York, USA, September 18, 1978.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_10');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_10\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>10<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">Regarding this \u201creiterative transhistoricity\u201d characteristic of ideology, one can read Patrick Tort, <em>Qu\u2019est-ce que le mat\u00e9rialisme&nbsp;?<\/em>, Paris, Belin, 2016, p. 38.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_11');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_11\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>11<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">&nbsp;Edward Said, <em>Orientalism, op. cit<\/em>., p. 341.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_12');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_12\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>12<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">&nbsp;For further insights on this subject, see: Linda Nochlin \u201cThe Imaginary Orient\u201d in <em>The Politics of Vision<\/em>, New York, Routledge, 1989.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_13');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_13\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>13<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">An analysis of this aesthetic is presented by Ma Lin in \u201cThe Representation of the Orient in Western Women Perfume Advertisements: A Semiotic Analysis\u201d, <em>Intercultural Communication Studies<\/em>, XVII, N\u00b0 1, 2008, p. 44-53.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_14');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_14\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>14<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">&nbsp;Edward Said, <em>Orientalism, op. cit<\/em>., p. 342.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_15');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_15\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>15<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Ibid<\/em>.<em>, <\/em>p. 119.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_16');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_16\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>16<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\"><em>Ibid<\/em>., p. XV.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n<tr class=\"footnotes_plugin_reference_row\"> <th scope=\"row\" class=\"footnote_plugin_index_combi pointer\"  onclick=\"footnote_moveToAnchor_34182_1('footnote_plugin_tooltip_34182_1_17');\"><a id=\"footnote_plugin_reference_34182_1_17\" class=\"footnote_backlink\"><span class=\"footnote_index_arrow\">&#8593;<\/span>17<\/a><\/th> <td class=\"footnote_plugin_text\">For further reading on the subject, see: Karl Schl\u00f6gel, <em>The Scent of Empires: Chanel N\u00b0 5 and Red Moscow<\/em>, Cambridge, Polity Press, 2021.<\/td><\/tr>\r\n\r\n <\/tbody> <\/table> <\/div><\/div><script type=\"text\/javascript\"> function footnote_expand_reference_container_34182_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_34182_1').show(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_34182_1').text('\u2212'); } function footnote_collapse_reference_container_34182_1() { jQuery('#footnote_references_container_34182_1').hide(); jQuery('#footnote_reference_container_collapse_button_34182_1').text('+'); 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